principles of learning

Welcome to the Principles of Learning section. Here we explore several different learning principles that have been empirically supported in various experimental contexts. These principles can be extended to and applied in classroom settings as well. For each of these principles, we offer an explanation, educational applications, an interactive online demonstration of the principle, and suggested readings. Several demonstrations are currently being developed.

The learning principles we explore are:

• The single most important variable in promoting long-term retention and transfer is "practice at retrieval"—learners generate responses, with minimal retrieval cues, repeatedly, over time.
• Varying learning conditions makes learning more effortful but results in enhanced long-term retrieval.
• Learning is generally enhanced when learners are required to take information that is presented in one format and "re-represent" it in an alternative format.
• New information learned depends heavily upon prior knowledge and experience.
• Learning is influenced by our students’ as well as our own epistemologies (theories about learning).
• Experience alone is a poor teacher.
• To promote in-depth understanding, avoid passive learning situations where a lone teacher mostly lectures while learners take notes.
• The process of remembering influences what learners will and will not remember in the future.
• Less is more, especially when considering long-term retention and transfer.

Although we, as educators, typically aim for long-term retention and transfer of knowledge (see Suggested Readings below) when educating our students, the online demonstrations given here are not meant to replace real instructional practices; rather they are meant to illustrate some aspect of a learning principle in a relatively short time period. Furthermore, by enumerating these learning principles, we do not mean to imply that these principles are mutually exclusive. Indeed, many of them are complimentary and logically follow from another.

Suggested Readings

Druckman, D. & Bjork, R. A. (Eds.) (1994). Learning, remembering, and believing: Enhancing human performance. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. This book discusses research and theoretical implications concerning cognitive and social factors of learning in a variety of settings, including classrooms and organizations. In particular, Chapter 3, Transfer: Training for Performance, examines how similar learning conditions should be to the target task to facilitate transfer of learning.

Haskell, R. E. (2000). Transfer of learning: Cognition, instruction, and reasoning. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. This books provides an thought-provoking discussion of what transfer is, including its historical background, theoretical explanations, everyday and instructional applications and importance to learning and instruction.